Task One

While evaluating Company G's attitude toward social responsibility it seems they made some decisions based on the severe lack of revenue over a period time, which motivated them to close a couple of stores. Those stores, which were located in a major metropolitan area, were also characterized as high-crime areas. By closing those stores, it no doubt had a negative economic impact both directly and indirectly on the people in those store locations. For the now unemployed people they will eave to look for another source of income and benefits.The community members that relied on those stores for groceries, will now have to travel to another store possibly at a longer distance and will have to commit more time and money. Company Q also listened to years of requests from its consumers to offer better options for the health-conscience consumers. The product selections were limited and were known as high margin items, which meaner they are more expensive to produce and the company won't se ll as many. There is usually is very little intention with these products and so they can afford to hold on their inventory for more time.When the local food bank asked to give day-old product, Company Q opted to get rid of the food because they were worried about being swindled by their employees. The company perhaps has seen poor choices and conduct from their employees which may have led to deciding it was best to dispose of the food rather than deal with the possibility of fraud. Company Q doesn't trust it workers to make good choice's with their resources I recommend three steps to help increase the

Race Based Jury Nullification Essay

Jury nullification can generally be termed as the act by a jury who even though is convinced that a defendant is guilty of the charges he or she is accused of, decides to give out or acquit him or her of the charges for the jury’s own reasons (Brandy R. 2006). Jury nullification or for that matter can be defined as a process whereby the jury(s) nullifies â€Å"unfair laws by declaring guilty defendants not guilty†. On the other hand race based jury nullification involves the process of a jury acquitting an individual based on his or her race. This kind of cases is usually found in homogenous cases where the diversity of the jury is nil or very little. Earlier cases that include runaway slave laws as well as the present day cases like police shootings indicate that race based nullification is still a modern day courtroom issue. The nullification process usually takes place in the event that a criminal trial decides not to convict a defendant in spite of full proof of guilt due to the belief and view by jurors that the law is unfair or at certain times that there is an unjustly application of the said law. The basis of the nullification can be said, thus, to be â€Å"the unjustness of the law†, the application of the same law on the basis of race of a party. Additionally there are instances where cases that involve the terminally ill persons in the society are often given leniency by the jurors, when they do drugs due to their condition. The issue often is not just about nullification per se but at times is based and as such has brought a lot o debate on its essence in view of the law as well as ethics. In this paper, I will discuss the issue of race based jury nullification, its limitations as well as its merits. Finally I will evaluate the relevance of race based jury nullification in our present day society. Race based jury nullification Race based jury nullification involves the process of a jury knowingly acquitting a defendant based on his or her race and with the full knowledge that the defendant is guilty. There are empirical studies, which have shown that about 3 to 4 percent of jury criminal trails have been connected to jury nullification. The dilemma that the situation presents is overwhelming, considering that there exists no chance to stop the process of jury nullification as jurors and are never ordered or forced to convict defendants and also there is also no clause in law that makes it punishable for the juror to acquit someone. The overlying principle function of the jury is that it should complete the law, if necessary through the recognition of fundamentals of justification that traverses beyond the written laws of the land and not to â€Å"nullify† the instructions given by the judge. The focal point of reference when the jurors give the â€Å"not guilty† verdict and in the process is the issue of unjust nature of the law. Pros and cons Depending on which side of the debate you are on, this issue has both the ugly and the good side. There are various reasons why race based jury nullification has encountered criticisms even by its ardent supporters. One, the case can be used for majority cases, that is in instances where the jury consists largely of persons from the same race can effectively acquit one of their â€Å"own† (defendant from the same race). For instance, a largely constituted black jury would free a black American even tough she or he has committed a severe crime. Thus in view of the law, when a dangerous individual is acquitted on the basis of his or her race sets a bad precedence (Jemal, 1997). There are instances when white jurors have acquitted fellow whites through the process of jury nullification while in the face of it the said defendants actually engaged in an illegality that either harmed black or brown people in America. There are also instances when black jurors have freed fellow blacks on the basis of their races while they committed either a racial act or a severe crime. This has not helped the just course of the due process, blacks, whites as well as other races have engaged in the race based jury nullification, something that does not portend well for rules of the law. The nature with which the voting is normally done by the jurors is usually that of conscience, to an extent this is a total disrespect if not abuse of the laws of this land. When someone who is supposedly guilty is acquitted, this is tantamount to nullification of the very law. They are supposed to protect and on whose basis the jury even came into existence. Jury nullification has the potential to turn an otherwise coherent and cohesive society or state into some hostile, incoherent or even lead to civil strife. This is because when serious acts are committed, and rulings are based on races, the respective races may gang up against each other. It seems to be a defeat process in the face of the law that should be the guardian and protector of all. The most often conclusion drawn is usually that nullification is an integral part of power, which is essential for the checks and balances of the judicial system. Jury nullification has and will continue to play a dual role in the history of our country. There are certain instances in our history that jury nullification has proved to be a useful tool. For instance, in those cases that involved slavery or differential prosecution at certain instances let racist to go unabated. There is the possibility that over use of this power together with other real or imagined risks that it possess would be enormous if everyone were to understand and be aware of it. However, the absence of it would put and vest too much power with the executive and surely everyone else understands the consequences of excessive unbalanced power exercised by the government versus the power of the common citizens. Conclusion Overall, the race based jury nullification has been, still is and would always be a very highly debatable topic, whether one supports it or he or she is against it. In each and every argument put forward by anyone in the society for or against jury nullification process, there are strong, valid opinions and facts in support of the various respective reasons that cannot just be wished away. Having evaluated the situation, and with a critical analysis of the basis of the law of our great country, I came to a conclusion that with due respect the good job the jurors have done so far, the race based jury nullification should not be conducted or at least cordoned by the jurors. This does not mean that I am in anyway opposing or rejecting the whole idea of jury nullification. However, if the element of race becomes apart of the whole equation, then I strongly call for its ban. In my opinion and understanding of our history I believe jury nullification based on a defendant’s race does not promote unity within communities at any level. Considering the tremendous efforts our country has made towards a harmonious community and with the effort various personalities have put in educating and sensitizing people on how negative race based ideas has and can be. I believe the whole process is discriminatory and basically racial to the people in our society. This does not in any way mean that individuals should be ashamed of their races and promotes the values and ideals they stand for, but when a defendant is found guilty or innocent on the basis of the law by the jurors based on his or her race alone then there is a problem. Either the problem is with the law or our society but none of us wants either of these two scenarios. The basis for any juror’s decision should be facts, information as well as evidence that they receive throughout the trail. Jurors prejudices be it racial or otherwise should be left at their door steps before they get into the streets leave alone the courtrooms. Reference: Brandy Rivera, 2006, Race based jury nullification. Associated Content Cato Books 1999: Jurors Should Know Their Rights: A historical look at jury independence Jemal, 1997, Race Based Jury Nullification: A Path To Equality! http://www. geocities. com/athens/olympus/1320/nullification. htm Scheflin, Alan W. , (1999) California Bar Journal, Point Counter Point – Is it ever proper for juries to ignore or reinterpret the law? , Retrieved September 28, 2007 from http://www. calbar. ca. gov/calbar/2cbj/99mar/page14-1. htm

Information Technology on Individuals, Organizations and Societies

Part VI Implementing and Managing IT 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Chapter 17 IT Strategy and Planning Information Technology Economics Acquiring IT Applications and Infrastructure Security Impacts of IT on Individuals, Organizations, and Society Impacts of IT on Individuals, Organizations, and Society Movie Piracy Learning Objectives 17. 1 Perspectives on IT Impacts 17. 2 IT Is Eliminating the Barriers of Time, After studying this chapter, you will be able to: Space, and Distance Understand the changes that take place in the workplace and the lives of individuals when information technology eliminates geographical and spatial barriers.Describe some of the major impacts of information technology on individuals, organizations, and society. 17. 3 Information Is Changing from a Scarce Resource to an Abundant Resource Discuss the positive and negative effects associated with the abundance of information made available by IT. 17. 4 Machines Are Performing Functions Identify the issues that arise du e to uneven diffusion of information technology across countries and socioeconomic classes. Previously Performed by Humans 17. 5 Information Technology Urges People to Reexamine Their Value Systems Understand the complexity of effects of technological rogress on labor markets and individual employees. 17. 6 Conclusion 17. 7 Managerial Issues Discuss the impacts of information technology on the quality of life and interpersonal relationships. Recognize the legal, ethical, and moral issues that become particularly critical due to proliferation of information technology. Minicases: 1. Megachurches 2. RFID for Consumer Products Integrating IT ACC FIN MKT POM HRM IS SVC 663 MOVIE PIRACY The Problem Generations of moviegoers went to movie theaters to enjoy the latest films. They accepted the idea of paying for their movies. However, movie piracy, which has been reatly accelerated by information technology, is challenging this notion. Now, movie pirates are bringing the latest motion pictu re releases to an Internet-connected computer near you. For years, movie studios suffered minor losses due to high-tech piracy (theft of digital content) that was carried out by people duplicating videotapes and DVDs. The need to produce and distribute physical media presented a number of technical and logistical difficulties for movie pirates, which limited the scope of their operations. Thus, picture studios largely ignored these activities. When Napster. com and other sites began to se the Web and peer-to-peer technologies to share pirated music, movie producers felt reasonably immune to this trend. After all, it would take more than a week to download a 5-gigabyte DVD-quality movie using a 56-kilobits-per-second modem. Some individuals argue that piracy does not hurt film studios but, rather, makes movies available to those people who would not be able to enjoy them otherwise. Information technology that enables movie piracy raises a number of significant issues, such as intelle ctual property rights, fair use, and the role of government in regulating these issues.Furthermore, information technology makes it easier than ever to cross national borders, adding international implications to the issue of movie piracy. The Solution To deal with movie piracy, picture studio executives attacked several aspects of the problem simultaneously. First, media companies tried to shape public opinion in a way that would discourage movie piracy. For instance, to raise public awareness of the issue, filmmakers launched an advertising campaign with the slogan â€Å"Movies. They’re worth it. † Second, the movie industry performed a number of ctivities that made it more difficult to copy and distribute pirated movies without being noticed. For instance, 664 enhanced physical security at movie theaters, which may include the use of metal detectors and physical searches for recording devices, helps the film industry deter piracy at â€Å"sneak previews† and movie premieres (Ripley, 2004). Technology plays an important part in this process. The Results Hollywood had several high-profile wins in its fight against Internet movie piracy in 2005 and 2006. The film industry’s trade organization, the Motion PictureAssociation of America (MPAA), slapped hundreds of people with lawsuits for illegally downloading and trading films online. The U. S. departments of Justice and Homeland Security shut down Elite Torrents, a popular Web site that spread copies of Star Wars: Episode III— Revenge of the Sith before the movie officially opened. Even Bram Cohen, creator of BitTorrent (a peer-to-peer file-sharing program responsible for an estimated 65% of illegal movie downloads in 2005), agreed to cut links to MPAA-pirated content off his Web site (Leung, 2006). Yet the problem seems to be getting worse.According to London-based research firm Informa, illegal movie downloads cost the industry U. S. $985 million in 2005, up from U. S. $860 million in 2004. Growing access to broadband likely played a role, as higher Internet speeds made downloading large movie files faster. Studio executives realize that enforcement is only part of the solution. As in the music industry, many believe the best way to prevent illegal downloads is to offer legal alternatives. Warner Bros. turned a technology used by Internet movie pirates to its advantage. In March 2006, in Germany, Austria, and parts of Switzerland, the company aunched In2Movies, a peer-to-peer file-sharing network that lets users download movies for the price of a DVD or less. Kevin Tsujihara, the president of the Warner Bros. ’ home entertainment group, said Germany has all the right ingredients for such a service: high rates of piracy due to high levels of broadband penetration, a tech-savvy population, and consumers willing to pay for downloaded movies. Sources: Compiled from Leung (2006) and Ripley (2004). Lessons Learned from This Case Obviously, information technology is not the cause of movie piracy, just as it is not the cause of music iracy. (See Online File W17. 1 for a discussion of music piracy. ) However, it is the tool that tremendously heightens the importance of legal, ethical, and regulatory issues related to this phenomenon. Copyright, trademark, and patent infringement, freedom of thought and speech, theft of property, and 17. 1 fraud are not new issues in modern societies. However, as this opening case illustrates, information technology adds to the scope and scale of these issues. It also raises a number of questions about what constitutes illegal behavior versus unethical, intrusive, or undesirable behavior.This chapter examines these and numerous other impacts of information technology on individuals, organizations, and society. Perspectives on IT Impacts Concern about the impact of technology on people, organizations, and society is not new. As early as the 1830s, English intellectuals expressed philosophical argumen ts about the effects of technologies that had given rise to the Industrial Revolution some 60 to 70 years earlier. Samuel Butler, in his 1872 book Erehwon (an anagram for nowhere), summarized the anxiety about the disruptive influences of technology on the lives of people.The book described a society that made a conscious decision to reject machines and new technology; in it, people have â€Å"frozen† technology at a predetermined level and outlawed all further technological development. While there are many philosophical, technological, social, and cultural differences between society at the start of the Industrial Revolution and the society of the middle of the Information Age in which we now live, there are, nevertheless, people who continue to believe that humankind is threatened by the evolution of technology. Overall, however, our society has not rejected technology but, rather, has embraced it.Most of us recognize that technology and information systems are essential t o maintaining, supporting, and enriching many aspects of the lives of individuals, operations of organizations, and functioning of societies. Humans are involved in a symbiotic relationship with technology. All the same, we must be aware of its effect on us as individuals and as members of organizations and society. Throughout this book, we have noted how information systems are being rationalized, developed, used, and maintained to help organizations meet their needs and reach their goals.In all these discussions, we have assumed that development and implementation of information technology produce only positive results and leave no major negative consequences. However, is this really true? Abundant evidence unmistakably points to potential negative effects of technology in general, and information technology in particular. Information technology has raised a multitude of negative issues, ranging from illegal copying of software programs to surveillance of employees’ e-mail. The impact of IT on employment levels is of major concern, as are the effects on sociability and the quality of life. A more critical issue, however, involves questions such as: Will proliferation of technology cause irreversible changes to the society as we know it? Will humans benefit from the new capabilities of information technology, or will they be harmed by machines playing more and more prominent roles in the society? Who will investigate the costs and risks of technologies? Will society have any control over the decisions to deploy technology? 665 666Chapter 17 Impacts of IT on Individuals, Organizations, and Society This chapter will discuss several major themes that can be identified among the countless effects of information technology. We will discuss how information technology removes spatial and geographic barriers, transforms information into an abundant resource, enables machines to perform â€Å"human† tasks, and forces people to reconsider their value syste ms. Each of these trends is comprised of the effects of multiple technologies and has far-reaching implications for various groups of people. 17. 2 IT Is Eliminating the Barriers of Time, Space, and DistanceOne of the most noticeable developments precipitated by information technology is the elimination of numerous barriers that traditionally separated individuals, organizations, and societies at different geographic locations. In essence, information technology is redefining the entire concept of time, space, and distance. Proliferation of high-speed data communication networks that span the globe enables companies to integrate geographically distant manufacturing and research facilities, link international financial markets, and even provide customer service from halfway around the world.GLOBALIZATION Offshore outsourcing is one of the manifestations of the trend toward globalization— blurring of geographic barriers—that is accelerated by information technology. Well -educated English-speaking employees residing in countries like India and the Philippines can perform services demanded by firms based in the United States, Great Britain, or any other country. In fact, outsourcing of white-collar services has already become mainstream, with software development and call-center operations being among the most prevalent.Furthermore, the outsourcing trends are naturally expanding into such activities as processing of insurance claims, transcription of medical records, engineering and design work, financial analysis, market research, and many others (â€Å"The Remote Future,† 2004). From a macroeconomic perspective, the effects of offshore outsourcing are quite positive: It facilitates a more efficient allocation of human resources by removing the imperfections introduced by geographical boundaries. On a microeconomic level, numerous companies will benefit from lower costs of outsourced activities.For example, by outsourcing back-office work to Costa Rica, the Philippines, and Great Britain, Procter & Gamble was able to realize $1 billion in cost reductions (La Londe, 2004). Nevertheless, outsourcing, as any other impact of information technology, raises an array of complex interrelated issues that are not always positive. For instance, outsourcing may be advantageous to some groups of people, but detrimental to others. Nasscom, the Indian IT industry lobby, forecasts that employment in the â€Å"ITenabled services† industry in India will grow from 770,000 in 2004 to 2 million in 2008 (â€Å"The Remote Future,† 2004).Yet, employees and trade unions in Western nations are expressing concerns about job losses resulting from offshore outsourcing. The U. S. federal government and the majority of individual states are already considering laws that would prevent government agencies from contracting their services out to foreign firms (Schroeder, 2004). As the volume of sensitive data processed offshore increases, o utsourcing will raise the questions of privacy and confidentiality.Privacy standards in a country where data originate may vary dramatically from the privacy laws and privacy safeguards in the country where the data are processed. An incident in which a disgruntled worker in Pakistan threatened to post medical records of U. S. patients on the Internet highlights the seriousness of this issue (Mintz, 2004). 17. 2 IT Is Eliminating the Barriers of Time, Space, and Distance 667 The remarkable communications capabilities delivered by IT promote globalization not only through offshore outsourcing but also through enabling firms to distribute core corporate functions around the globe.TELECOMMUTING Broadband Internet access, secure virtual private networks, and mobile computing technologies are making it possible for many professionals to telecommute, or work from outside the office. According to some estimates, by the year 2010 more than half of workers in the United States will spend 2 o r more days a week working away from the office. However, experts estimate that even in 10 years it would be uncommon to find workers who telecommute 5 days a week, suggesting that telecommuting would not fully eliminate the need for central office locations.From 1990 to 2000, the number of those who worked more at home than at the office grew by 23 percent, twice the rate of growth of the total labor market. Since 2000, telecommuting has continued to increase. Approximately 4. 5 million Americans telecommute a majority of their total working days, with some 20 million commuting at least some days each month and 45 million telecommuting at least once per year. Telecommuting offers a plethora of benefits, including reducing rush-hour traffic, improving air quality, improving highway safety, and even improving health care (see IT at Work 17. ). Among the large metropolitan areas in the United States, the largest amount of telecommuting occurs in Denver, Portland, and San Diego. The pr ojected growth of IT-related jobs is on the rise. Five of the top ten highest-growth jobs are IT-related, including computer software engineering for applications, computer support specialists, computer software engineering for systems software, network and computer systems administrators, and network systems and data communication analysts (Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Outlook Handbook; see money. cnn. om/magazines/ business2/nextjobboom/), and the rates of telecommuting are expected to grow even higher. Many of these IT-related jobs can now be effectively performed from home, thanks to excellent bandwidths and improved technologies to support telecommuting. IT at Work 17. 1 Telemedicine Helps Indian Tribe Get Better Health Care The Alabama Coushatta Indian Tribe Reservation, located 45 miles outside of Houston, Texas, in Livingston County, has experienced an outmigration of its people to more metropolitan areas in search of better education, jobs, and health care.Wanti ng to preserve its race and culture, the 300-member tribe sought ways to make living on the reservation more attractive to its young members. In partnership with Sam Houston State University (SHSU) and with $350,000 in funding from the Rural Utilities Services, a network called RESNET was created to bridge the information and communication gaps for residents of Livingston and surrounding counties. A fiber-optic network links the medical clinic on the reservation to the University of Texas Medical Branch in Polk County as well as to the Tyler County Hospital. Tribal members can ow receive more specialized care as two-way consultations between the clinic on the reservation and the hospital in Polk County or Tyler County are now possible. Individuals with ailments that might require hospitalization, but about which they are not sure, such as a diabetic with a concern about a swollen limb, can first check with the medical clinic on the reservation. Vital signs can be taken and radiology images shared with the specialist physicians at one of the hospitals, and then informed decisions about whether the patient needs to travel to a hospital can be made.This helps improve the quality of care as well as saves time both for patients and for medical staff. Source: USDA (2006) and shsu. edu (1997). For Further Exploration: What are potential legal problems associated with telemedicine? What are some trade-offs to be considered? 668 Chapter 17 Impacts of IT on Individuals, Organizations, and Society The typical telecommuter is well-educated, financially stable, has children, works in management and/or sales, and had worked in his or her current position for several years face-to-face before starting to telecommute Balaker, 2005). Likewise, as the percent of service-related jobs increases—by 2002, 82 percent of the U. S. workforce worked in service-related jobs—the potential for more telecommuting also rises. It is simply not possible for factory or agricultur al laborers to telecommute, but many service-related jobs do offer the potential for telecommuting. One area where telecommuting is having a promising impact is that of telemedicine. For instance, in 2001, doctors in New York performed the first successful crossAtlantic telesurgery on a patient in Strasbourg France.The removal of the patient’s gallbladder was conducted via a robotic arm that was remotely controlled by the surgeons. A fiber-optic cable operated by France Telecom enabled the high-speed link so that the images from the operating table in France were on display in front of the doctors in New York, with an average time delay of only 150 milliseconds (Johnson, 2002). Other areas of medicine are experiencing surges in telemedicine as well. Replacing the couch with a monitor and video feed, telepsychiatry in particular is becoming popular, fueled in part by the need to serve rural patients and the need to service prison populations.Data from the National Conference o f State Legislatures indicates that as of 2006, six states in the United States required private insurers to reimburse patients for telepsychiatry. Impacts of Working from Home or Virtual Office. All forms of telecommuting— working from home (WFH) or a virtual office—give employees greater flexibility in their working locations and hours. Working in a virtual office is one way an employee can telecommute by completing job duties virtually anywhere—a car, hotel room, airport, or any hotspot.Telecommuting (or telework) played a significant role in business continuity and continuity of operations planning. Companies who had employees in New York City on 9/11 or New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina relied on telework. Their employees were able to work immediately after these tragedies because of the telework programs they had in place. The Telework Coalition (TelCoa. org), a nonprofit membership organization that promotes virtual and distributed work, conducted a be nchmarking study of employers in public and private sectors with large telework programs. Employers represented roughly 00,000 employees and 150,000 teleworkers and mobile workers. The 2006 study, sponsored by Intel, looked at how these large organizations resolved problems to create successful programs that benefited the organization and employees through reduced real estate costs, increased employee retention, and a higher rate of employee satisfaction. The survey was valuable because it examined details such as benefits, costs, challenges, and unexpected consequences experienced by managers. Most participants emphasized the importance of the mobility that telework enables when dealing in a global economy.To read the Executive Summary of the telework survey, visit telcoa. org/id311. htm. An interesting finding was that telework was being regarded as â€Å"just work† and not an unusual form of work. As long as employees had a phone, laptop, high-speed Internet access, and fa x, they are in business wherever they are. With the convergence of technologies, such as a wireless-equipped laptop with a VoIP phone, or a new-generation PDA, work can be done from almost anywhere. Telework is also of great importance to the local community and society because of effects on the environment, safety, and health.For example, the strength of a society depends on the strength of its individuals and the strength of their families. Other potential benefits 17. 2 IT Is Eliminating the Barriers of Time, Space, and Distance TABLE 17. 1 669 Potential Benefits of Telecommuting or Virtual Work Individuals Organizational Community and Society †¢ Reduces or eliminates travelrelated time and expenses †¢ Improves health by reducing stress related to compromises made between family and work responsibilities †¢ Allows closer proximity to and involvement with family †¢ Allows closer bonds with the family and the community Decreases involvement in office politics â € ¢ Increases productivity despite distractions †¢ Reduces office space needed †¢ Increases labor pool and competitive advantage in recruitment †¢ Provides compliance with Americans with Disabilities Act †¢ Decreases employee turnover, absenteeism, and sick leave usage †¢ Improves job satisfaction and productivity †¢ Conserves energy and lessens dependence on foreign oil †¢ Preserves the environment by reducing traffic-related pollution and congestion †¢ Reduces traffic accidents and resulting injuries or deaths Reduces the incidence of disrupted families when people do not have to quit their jobs if they need to move because of a spouse’s new job or family obligations †¢ Increased employment opportunities for the homebound †¢ Allows the movement of job opportunities to areas of high unemployment of telework to individuals, organizations, and communities are listed in Table 17. 1. There are numerous potential negative effect s of telework, including a sense of isolation when working from home even though such work often requires a lot of telephone contact with people in the office.Growth in telecommuting raises the questions of whether the benefits of working from home outweigh the costs, and whether telecommuting is appropriate for everyone or only for workers with certain qualities and personality types. Few of us want to work around the clock, 24 hours a day, seven days a week, 365 days a year, but the pressure to do so could be considerable if the facility exists. Another pressure may be to work antisocial hours—night shifts, for example, or weekends—which can adversely impact the quality of social interactions and interpersonal relationships. For more on teleworking, see Online File W17. 2. ) Globalization and telecommuting are only two examples of how information technology removes the barriers of time, space, and distance. Far-reaching results of this trend are changing the way we l ive, work, play, and do business, bringing both improvements that we can enjoy and the challenges that we need to overcome. In the context of organizations, these changes have important implications for structure, authority, power, job content, and personnel issues. STRUCTURE, AUTHORITY, POWER, JOB C ONTENT, AND PERSONNEL ISSUESThe IT revolution may result in many changes in structure, authority, power, and job content, as well as personnel management and human resources management. Details of these changes are shown in Table 17. 2. In addition, other changes are expected in organizations. IT managers are assuming a greater leadership role in making business decisions. The impact goes beyond one company or one supply chain, to influence entire industries. For example, the use of profitability models and optimization is reshaping retailing, real estate, banking, transportation, airlines, and car renting, to mention just a few.These and other changes are impacting personnel issues, as shown in Table 17. 3. Many additional personnel-related questions could surface as a result of using IT. For example: What will be the impact of IT on job qualifications and on training 670 Chapter 17 Impacts of IT on Individuals, Organizations, and Society TABLE 17. 2 Impacts of IT on Structure, Authority, Power, and Job Content Impact Effect of IT Flatter organizational hierarchies IT increases span of control (more employees per supervisor), increases productivity, and reduces the need for technical experts (due to expert systems).Fewer managerial levels will result, with fewer staff and line managers. Reduction in the total number of employees, reengineering of business processes, and the ability of lower-level employees to perform higher-level jobs may result in flatter organizational hierarchies. The ratio of white- to blue-collar workers increases as computers replace clerical jobs, and as the need for information systems specialists increases. However, the number of profess ionals and specialists could decline in relation to the total number of employees in some organizations as intelligent and knowledge-based systems grow.IT makes possible technology centers, e-commerce centers, decision support systems departments, and/or intelligent systems departments. Such units may have a major impact on organizational structure, especially when they are supported by or report directly to top management. Centralization may become more popular because of the trend toward smaller and flatter organizations and the use of expert systems. On the other hand, the Web permits greater empowerment, allowing for more decentralization. Whether use of IT results in more centralization or in decentralization may depend on top management’s philosophy.Knowledge is power, and those who control information and knowledge are likely to gain power. The struggle over who controls the information resources has become a conflict in many organizations. In some countries, the fight may be between corporations that seek to use information for competitive advantage and the government (e. g. , Microsoft vs. the Justice Dept. ). Elsewhere, governments may seek to hold onto the reins of power by not letting private citizens access some information (e. g. , China’s restriction of Internet usage).Job content is interrelated with employee satisfaction, compensation, status, and productivity. Resistance to changes in job skills is common, and can lead to unpleasant confrontations between employees and management. Change in blue-towhite-collar staff ratio Growth in number of special units Centralization of authority Changes in power and status Changes in job content and skill sets requirements? How can jobs that use IT be designed so that they present an acceptable level of challenge to users? How might IT be used to personalize or enrich jobs?What can be done to make sure that the introduction of IT does not demean jobs or have other negative impacts from the w orkers’ point of view? All these and more issues could be encountered in any IT implementation. TABLE 17. 3 Impacts of IT on Personnel Issues Impact Effect of IT Shorter career ladders In the past, many professionals developed their abilities through years of experience and a series of positions that exposed them to progressively more complex situations. The use of IT, and especially Web-based computer-aided instruction, may short-cut this learning curve. IT introduces the possibility for greater electronic supervision.In general, the supervisory process may become more formalized, with greater reliance on procedures and measurable (i. e. , quantitative) outputs and less on interpersonal processes. This is especially true for knowledge workers and telecommuters. The Web has the potential to increase job mobility. Sites such as techjourney. com can tell you how jobs pay in any place in the United States. Sites like monster. com offer places to post job offerings and resumes. U sing videoconferencing for interviews and intelligent agents to find jobs is likely to increase employee turnover.Changes in supervision Job mobility 17. 3 Information Is Changing from a Scarce Resource to an Abundant Resource 17. 3 671 Information Is Changing from a Scarce Resource to an Abundant Resource Few people disagree with the notion that information is a valuable resource and that increased availability of information can be beneficial for individuals and organizations alike. However, information technology’s capability to introduce ever-growing amounts of data and information into our lives can exceed our capacity to keep up with them, leading to information overload.Business users are not suffering from the scarcity of data; instead, they are discovering that the process of finding the information they need in massive collections of documents can be complicated, time consuming, and expensive. The impact of information overload is felt not only in business circles b ut also in many other parts of the society, including the military intelligence community. At the onset of the Information Age, intelligence professionals acquired never-before-seen data collection tools, including high-resolution satellite imagery and versatile sensors capable of penetrating natural and manmade barriers.Furthermore, information technology enabled the intelligence community to establish high-speed communication links to transfer the data, build vast databases to store the data, and use powerful supercomputers with intelligent software to process the data. Clearly, information technology has greatly increased both the amount of information available to the intelligence community and the speed at which it can analyze this information. However, existing computer systems and human analysts are unable to deal with the increasing volumes of data, creating the information-overload problem.For instance, according to MacDonald and Oettinger (2002),â€Å"information that mig ht have prevented some of the September 11 attacks apparently existed somewhere within the vast quantity of data collected by the intelligence community, but the systems for using such information have lagged far behind the ability to collect the data. † To be effective at solving the problem of information overload, information systems must differentiate between the data that can be safely summarized and the data that should be viewed in its original form (DeSouza et al. , 2004). INFORMATION OVERLOAD INFORMATION QUALITY FINAs organizations and societies continue to generate, process, and rely on the rapidly increasing amounts of information, they begin to realize the importance of information quality. Information quality is a somewhat subjective measure of the utility, objectivity, and integrity of gathered information. Quality issues affect both the simple collections of facts (data) and the more complex pieces of processed data (information). To be truly valuable, both data and information must possess a number of essential characteristics, such as being complete, accurate, up-to-date, and â€Å"fit for the purpose† for which they are used (Ojala, 2003).The value and usability of data and information that do not satisfy these requirements are severely limited. Issues relating to information quality have become sufficiently significant that they now occupy a notable place on the government’s legislative agenda. The Data Quality Act of 2001 and the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 impose stringent information quality requirements on government agencies and publicly traded corporations (Loshin, 2004).For example, one of the provisions of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act makes chief executive and financial officers personally responsible and liable for the quality of financial information that firms release to stockholders or file with the Securities and Exchange Commission. This rule emphasizes the importance of controlling and measuring data qualit y and information quality in business intelligence, corporate performance management, and record management systems (Logan and Buytendijk, 2003). Information quality problems are not limited to corporate data. Millions of individuals face information quality ssues on a daily basis as they try to find information 672 Chapter 17 Impacts of IT on Individuals, Organizations, and Society online, whether on publicly available Web pages or in specialized research databases, wikis, blogs, or newsfeeds. Among the most common problems that plague online information sources is omission of materials. A number of online â€Å"full-text† periodicals databases may omit certain items that appeared in the printed versions of those publications. In addition, online sources of information leave out older documents, which are not available in digital form.Thus, one cannot be assured of having access to a complete set of relevant materials. Even materials that are available from seemingly reputab le sources present information quality concerns. Information may have been reported wrong, whether intentionally or unintentionally, or the information may have become out of date (Ojala, 2003). These and other information quality issues are contributing to the frustration and anxiety that for some have become the unfortunate side effect of the Information Age. SPAM THE DIGITAL DIVIDESpamming, the practice of indiscriminately broadcasting unsolicited messages via e-mail and over the Internet, is one of the most widespread forms of digital noise. Spam is typically directed at a person and presents a considerable annoyance, with 70 percent of users indicating that â€Å"spam makes being online unpleasant† (Davies, 2004). Bulk unsolicited electronic messages—spam—accounts for more than 66 percent of all e-mail traffic on the Internet. Some 25. 5 billion spam messages were sent in 2004 (reported by Defacto, 2005).This volume of messages significantly impairs the ban dwidth of Internet service providers and places excessive capacity demands on mail servers. In electronic commerce, spam can delay transactions and can cause problems in supply chains where business data are exchanged through specially configured e-mail accounts (Davies, 2004). Spam hurts businesses even more by lowering the productivity of employees who have to deal with unwanted messages. Spam can originate in any country, making the anti-spam legislation of any given country largely ineffective in keeping spam out.The 2004 Ferris Research Study on spam found that the average amount spent on anti-spam products was $41 per user per year, so for a company with 10,000 employees, this would total $410,000 for the company per year. Thirty-four percent of the respondents in the Ferris study indicated that between 50 and 74 percent of all incoming messages were spam. Fortythree percent reported that managing spam was a major managerial concern. Of the approximately 500 organizations stud ied, 56 percent had already implemented antispam software with another 30 percent planning to.For the 14 percent that did not plan to implement spam software, the major reason was the fear of â€Å"false positives†Ã¢â‚¬â€ that is, the concern that messages that are quite important will be filtered as junk. In fact, unless employees occasionally browse their junk mail, they might very well miss important messages. Thus, in addition to the cost of the software, there is no way around the fact that spam costs organizations in terms of employee time. See Online File W17. 3 for discussion of the U. S. Can-Spam Act.Internet service providers and software companies have embarked on a technological campaign to eradicate spam. Mail-filtering software and other technologies have made it more difficult for spammers to distribute their messages. However, spammers have responded with creative new schemes to defeat the anti-spam solutions. The battle of innovations and counterinnovations between spammers and anti-spam companies continues. Some of the major anti-spam software providers include SpamAssassin, Symantec, Network Associates McAfee, TrendMicro, GFI, SurfControl, and Sophos.Technologies enabling access to information are not distributed evenly among various groups of people. For some people, information continues to be a scarce resource, which puts them at a comparative economic and social disadvantage. The gap in computer technology in general, and now in Web technology in particular, 17. 3 Information Is Changing from a Scarce Resource to an Abundant Resource 673 between those who have such technology and those who do not is referred to as the digital divide.However, by 2003, nearly 100 percent of the public schools in the United States had Internet access (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2005). Not only has the divide in terms of access per se been reduced, but the divide in terms of the quality (or speed) of access has been reduced. By 2003, 95 percent of public schools used broadband connections to access the Internet, as compared with 80 percent in 2000 and fewer than 15 percent in 1996. Greater access in public schools is helping break the racial digital divide that has been noticeable since the Internet first emerged.The New York Times reported in March 2006 that a Pew national survey of people 18 and older found that 61 percent of African Americans reported using the Internet, compared with 74 percent of whites and 80 percent of English-speaking Hispanics (Marriott, 2006). However, what these studies do not indicate is the purpose of the Internet use, the frequency of it, or the benefit of it. Nor do the studies provide evidence that the divide is shrinking across households. Poorer households remain less likely to have Internet access from the home than do wealthier counterparts (Marriott, 2006).Moreover, even as the divide lessens in regard to mature technologies, it continues to exist for newer technologies. Fo r example, some schools with sufficient resources are now making iPods a tool for all students (see IT at Work 17. 2). IMPACTS ON I NDIVIDUALS Together, the increasing amounts of information and information technology use have potential impacts on job satisfaction, dehumanization, and information anxiety as well as impacts on health and safety. Although many jobs may become substantially more â€Å"enriched† with IT, other jobs may become more routine and less satisfying.Dehumanization and Other Psychological Impacts. Many people feel a loss of identity, a dehumanization, because of computerization; they feel like â€Å"just another number† because computers reduce or eliminate the human element that was present in the noncomputerized systems. Some people also feel this way about the Web. On the other hand, while the major objective of technologies, such as e-commerce, is to increase productivity, they can also create personalized, flexible systems that allow individua ls to include their opinions and knowledge in the system.These technologies attempt to be people-oriented and user-friendly (e. g. , blogs and wikis). The Internet threatens to have an even more isolating influence than has been created by television. If people are encouraged to work and shop from their living rooms, then some unfortunate psychological effects, such as depression and loneliness, could develop. Some people have become so addicted to the Web that they have dropped out of their regular social activities, at school or work or home, creating societal and organizational problems.Another possible psychological impact relates to distance learning. In some countries, it is legal to school children at home through IT. Some argue, however, that the lack of social contacts could be damaging to the social, moral, and cognitive development of school-age children who spend long periods of time working alone on the computer. Information Anxiety. Another potential negative impact is information anxiety. This disquiet can take several forms, such as frustration with our inability to keep up with the amount of data present in our lives. Information anxiety can take other forms as well.One is frustration with the quality of the information available on the Web, which frequently is not up-to-date or incomplete. Another is frustration or guilt associated with not being better informed, or being informed too late (â€Å"How come others knew this before I did? †). A third form of information anxiety stems from information overload (too many online sources). 674 Chapter 17 Impacts of IT on Individuals, Organizations, and Society IT at Work 17. 2 The Dog Ate My iPod Schools and universities are finding new ways to keep up with technology, such as the emergence of iPods on campuses.All levels of education are using this brand of portable media players, designed and marketed by Apple Computer, as a learning tool. Duke University was one of the first to embrace thi s technology. Duke’s provost, Peter Lang, said, â€Å"the direct effect of iPods is they learn better in the classroom. † Duke was awarded a grant to give their freshmen 20-gigabyte iPods—enough storage for up to 5,000 songs. The results are mixed; about 75 percent of those surveyed at Duke said they use their iPods for academic work. Half the time, they use the device in ways recommended by the professors.The positive feedback is that the iPod is similar to the old recording devices used in the past, but with the ability to store, organize, and access with a click of a couple of buttons. Students do not have to attend the class to download the materials online or from a fellow student. Some schools feel that students will skip out on classes and rely on each other’s recordings, or even use the device to cheat. According to Don McCabe, a Rutgers professor who surveyed nearly 62,000 undergraduates on 96 campuses over four years, two-thirds of the students admitted to cheating.That is a concern, especially with the compact size, wireless earpieces, and the ability to hold podcasts—audio recordings that can be distributed over the Internet. But with an abundance of electronic gadgets, including handheld email devices, wireless access in classrooms to the Internet, calculators that are preprogrammed with formulas, and pensized scanners used to copy text or exams for other students, universities have to stay ahead of the curve. Some other concerns are: How will the lecturer’s words and actions be used for unknown purposes and when/where is copyright eing infringed when students and faculty make their own recordings? In spite of the worries of skipping class, personal use, and cheating, Apple Computer is behind the iPod in the education field. Six schools (Duke, Brown, Stanford, the University of Michigan, the University of Wisconsin–Madison, and the University of Missouri School of Journalism) recently participated i n a pilot program called iTunes U (apple. com/educastion/solutions/ itunes_u/). The program was so popular that Apple began to offer the program to all colleges for lectures, notes, podcasts, and information in a library for students to download.Other schools, such as Brearley School, a private school for girls on the Upper East Side of Manhattan, use iPods predominantly in interactive exercises, such as foreign language classes. Katherine Hallissy Ayala, the head of the computer education department, says â€Å"the hope is that if students are interested in this, they’ll download and explore on their own without being told to. † And Jacques Houis, a French teacher at Brearley, feels that â€Å"listening to many different types of French, not just the teacher, is very important. Students have said that the iPod has helped their foreign language skills by listening to playbacks, music, and other sources besides what is taught in the classroom. One thing is for sure, th e iPod is changing the academic field and schools will have to stay ahead of generations born in the ever-changing world of technology. Sources: Ferguson (2005) and Moore (2005) For Further Exploration: How does the use of iPods shift responsibility from teachers â€Å"teaching† to students â€Å"learning†? What excuses might a student use for not completing an ssignment correctly or submitting it on time? Impacts on Health and Safety. Computers and information systems are a part of the environment that may adversely affect individuals’ health and safety. To illustrate, we will discuss the effects of job stress and long-term use of the keyboard. Job Stress. An increase in workload and/or responsibilities can trigger job stress. Although computerization has benefited organizations by increasing productivity, it has also created an ever-increasing workload for some employees.Some workers, especially those who are not proficient with computers, but who must work wi th them, feel overwhelmed and start feeling anxious about their jobs and their job performance. These feelings of anxiety can adversely affect workers’ productivity. Management’s responsibility is to help alleviate these feelings by providing training, redistributing the workload among workers, or by hiring more individuals. Repetitive Strain (Stress) Injuries. Other potential health and safety hazards are repetitive strain injuries such as backaches and muscle tension in the wrists and fingers.Carpal tunnel syndrome is a painful form of repetitive strain injury that affects the wrists and hands. It has been associated with the long-term use of keyboards. 17. 3 Information Is Changing from a Scarce Resource to an Abundant Resource 675 Lessening the Negative Impact on Health and Safety. Designers are aware of the potential problems associated with prolonged use of computers. Consequently, they have attempted to design a better computing environment. Research in the area of ergonomics (the science of adapting machines and work environments to people) provides guidance for these designers.For instance, ergonomic techniques focus on creating an environment for the worker that is safe, well lit, and comfortable. Devices such as antiglare screens have helped alleviate problems of fatigued or damaged eyesight, and chairs that contour the human body have helped decrease backaches (see A Closer Look 17. 1). A Closer Look 17. 1 Ergonomic and Protective Products Many products are available to improve working conditions for people who spend much of their time at a computer. The following photos illustrate some ergonomic solutions. Wrist support Back support Eye-protection filter optically coated glass) Adjustable foot rest 676 Chapter 17 Impacts of IT on Individuals, Organizations, and Society 17. 4 Machines Are Performing Functions Previously Performed by Humans One of the distinguishing traits of humankind is the continuous quest to find tools and techniqu es to replace human work and manual labor. Information technology greatly accelerates this process and allows machines to perform a variety of complex functions, which, in the past, could be performed only by humans. Robotics offers a clear example of information technology eliminating the need for human labor.Computerized transaction processing systems, automated teller machines, intelligent scheduling software, and voice recognition systems illustrate information technology’s capability to replace administrative and clerical work. Moreover, artificial intelligence and expert systems are now able to perform the work of white-collar professionals. As functionality of machines and computer systems continues to evolve, it will transform societies by influencing such critical factors as the quality of life, the dynamics of labor markets, and the nature of human interactions. QUALITY OF LIFE GOVQuality of life refers to measures of how well we achieve a desirable standard of livi ng. For example, the use of robots in uncomfortable or dangerous environments is one of the primary ways of improving the quality of life with information technology. For decades, robots have been used to replace physically demanding or tedious activities in manufacturing plants. Robots and other quasi-autonomous devices have become increasingly common on farm fields, in hospitals, and even in private homes, improving the quality of life of numerous people. A type of robot works at the University of California Hospital at San Francisco.The five-foot-tall machine, which can drive down the hallways and call an elevator to travel to other floors, carries medicine and blood samples around the building (Stone, 2003). Specialized robots that can relieve people of the need to perform certain household tasks are becoming commercially available. For instance, robotic vacuum cleaners capable of finding their way around furniture and other obstacles in any room are already sweeping the floors in thousands of homes around the world. Military applications of robotics hold the potential not only to improve the quality of life but also to save the lives of soldiers.The Pentagon is researching selfdriving vehicles and bee-like swarms of small surveillance robots, each of which would contribute a different view or angle of a combat zone. In March 2004, DARPA, the research arm of the U. S. Department of Defense, held a race of fully autonomous land vehicles across a challenging 150-mile stretch of the Mojave Desert. Thirteen entrants designed vehicles that could navigate and drive themselves without humans at the remote controls. This race ended without any winners. The machine that traveled the farthest—12 km—was built by Carnegie Mellon University (â€Å"Robots, start your engines,† 2004).These initial results suggest that significant advances in IT will need to be made before robots can handle complex, unfamiliar situations and operate entirely autonomou sly. Somewhat less obvious, but very noticeable improvements in the quality of life arise from the ability of computers to â€Å"make decisions†Ã¢â‚¬â€an activity that used to be in the exclusive domain of human beings. Although such decisions are typically limited in scope and are based on rules established by people, they are successfully employed in a variety of practical applications.For example, automobile navigation systems may be incapable of guiding a vehicle across the unpredictable desert terrain, but they are quite adept at finding the optimal route to the desired destination using a network of existing roadways. Global positioning systems (GPSs) integrated 17. 4 Machines Are Performing Functions Previously Performed by Humans SVC 677 with geographic information systems (GISs) available in many modern vehicles allow the driver to hand over navigational decisions to the computer, thereby offering an additional level of safety and convenience.Expert systems used in the health-care industry offer another example of quality of life improvements that follow from machines’ abilities to perform â€Å"human† work. For instance, some systems can improve the diagnosis process by analyzing the set of symptoms experienced by the patient. Other systems can supplement a physician’s judgment by analyzing prescriptions for dosage and potential drug interactions, thus reducing the frequency and severity of medication errors, which translates into a higher quality of life for the patients. Partners HealthCare System, Inc. for example, reported a 55 percent reduction in the number of serious medication errors following the implementation of such a system (Melymuka, 2002). Whether robots will be of the quality of R2D2 (the Star Wars robot) is another issue. It probably will be a long time before we see robots making decisions by themselves, handling unfamiliar situations, and interacting with people. Nevertheless, robots are around that can do practical tasks. Carnegie Mellon University, for example, has developed self-directing tractors that harvest hundreds of acres of rops around the clock in California, using global positioning systems combined with video image processing that identifies rows of uncut crops. Robots are especially helpful in hazardous environments, as illustrated in IT at Work 17. 3. IT at Work 17. 3 The Working Lives of Robots Laying Fiber-Optic Cables. Cities around the world are transforming themselves to the digital era by replacing copper wires with fiber-optic cables or by installing fiber optics where there were no wires before. Because fiber-optic cables are a choice method to deliver high-speed voice and data ommunication (see Technology Guide 4), demand for them is expanding. Cities know that in order to attract and hold on to high-tech business they must provide fiber-optic access to all commercial buildings. You may have seen this activity many times without realizing it: Workers cut up the street, creating noise, dust, and traffic problems. But the worst part of it is that the disruption to people may take weeks, or even months, just to complete one city block. Now, robots are changing it all. One company that invented a technology to improve the ituation is City Net Telecommunications (citynettelecom .com). The idea is to use the existing sewer system to lay the cables. This way no trenches need to be dug in the streets. Pioneering work has been done in Albuquerque, New Mexico, Omaha, Nebraska, and Indianapolis, Indiana (in spring 2001). How do the robots help? Robots are waterproof and do not have noses, and so they are not bothered by working in the sewer. They do not complain, nor do they get sick. As a matter of fact, they work faster than humans when it comes to laying the fiber-optic cables inside the sewer system. POM GOVWhat does it cost? The company claims that laying the fiber-optic cable with robots costs about the same as the old method. The major ad vantage is that it can be done 60 percent faster and without disruption to people’s lives. Cleaning Train Stations in Japan. With growing amounts of rubbish to deal with at Japanese train stations and fewer people willing to work as cleaners, officials have started turning the dirty work over to robots. Since May 1993, the Central Japan Railway Company and Sizuko Company, a Japanese machinery maker, have been using robots programmed to vacuum rubbish.A railway official said the robots, which are capable of doing the work of 10 people each, have been operating at the Sizuko station in Central Japan. The robots measure about 1. 5 meters wide and 1. 2 meters long. The railway and Sizuko spent 70 million yen to develop the machines and are planning to program them for other tasks, such as sweeping and scrubbing. Sources: Compiled from the New York Times (March 6, 2001); from the Wall Street Journal (November 21, 2000); and from â€Å"Robots Used to Clean Train Station in . . . à ¢â‚¬  (1993). See also â€Å"The Robot Revolution Is on the Way† (2000).For Further Exploration: If robots are so effective, what will be the impact on unemployment when more tasks are robotized? What will people do if robots take over? 678 Chapter 17 Impacts of IT on Individuals, Organizations, and Society IMPACT ON L ABOR MARKETS One of the most prominent concerns is the fear that due to technological advances, machines will replace millions of workers, leading to mass unemployment. Robots and office automation systems are effectively competing with humans for blue-collar and clerical jobs. It is important to note that white-collar occupations are not immune to the impact of information technology either.In fact, machines are beginning to challenge scientists, interpreters, computer programmers, lawyers, aircraft pilots, and other professionals in their jobs. Researchers in Great Britain, for instance, have built a robot-scientist capable of performing simple genetic exper iments. The computer-controlled robot independently formulated hypotheses about the functions of unknown genes, designed experiments to test them, manipulated laboratory equipment to conduct the experiments, analyzed the results, and accepted or rejected hypotheses based on the evidence it obtained.The robot’s performance was comparable to the performance of graduate students working on similar tasks (Begley, 2004). Translators and interpreters also face competition from information technology in the form of speech- and text-based machine translation systems. While existing machine translation software cannot rival the accuracy, clarity, eloquence, and vividness of human translations, it is typically able to convey the gist of the message and comply with the major rules of grammar and syntax (Schwartz, 2004). (Visit online-translator. com, google. om/language_tools, and world. altavista. com to review several online translation services. ) Legal professionals may discover som e unusual contenders, eager to take over their jobs. Some software packages used by law firms rely on artificial intelligence to analyze facts, determine applicable regulations, and prepare drafts of appropriate documents—all of which are activities traditionally performed by entry-level lawyers and paralegals. These and other examples illustrate a valid threat that information technology presents to workers in numerous occupations.In addition, they prompt the question of whether you should be concerned about the prospects of computers acquiring the capabilities of doing your job more effectively and efficiently. Following the introduction of new technologies that mimic the functions of human workers, it is common to observe some job losses as old jobs are replaced by computerized equipment. However, this negative impact on employment levels offers a very simplistic and incomplete picture of the chain of events associated with technological advances.One of the more straightfo rward positive side-effects of technological advances is the creation of new jobs, which takes place in other sectors of the economy that produce and operate the new equipment and computer systems. Furthermore, introduction of new information technologies results in more efficient allocation of scarce resources, such as labor, capital, and raw materials. As the production processes become more efficient, they apply downward pressure on price levels, which leads to higher demand, as consumers respond to lower prices.To satisfy the growing demand, producers tend to increase the output of goods and services, which is frequently accomplished by hiring more workers. Other entities in the affected supply chains react to increased demand and instigate further employment growth. Thus, from the macroeconomic perspective, technological progress generally increases the aggregate level of employment (Soete, 2001). Fluctuations in unemployment rates are generally associated with business cycles and do not indicate that information technology is likely to displace a large number of workers (Handel, 2003). IT at Work 17. demonstrates one of the impacts of information technology on employment in the retailing industry. Although the net effect of information technology proliferation is generally positive for the economy as a whole, on a personal level, IT-induced job displacement 17. 4 Machines Are Performing Functions Previously Performed by Humans 679 IT at Work 17. 4 Do-It-Yourself Retailing The concept of allowing shoppers to scan and bag their own items at retail stores has been around for quite a while. In the 1980s, technology necessary to implement self-checkout systems was already available.However, at that time, the costs of such systems were prohibitively high, and consumer acceptance was extremely low. As this technology continued to evolve and mature, self-checkout registers turned into attractive propositions for supermarkets, grocery stores, and other retailers. In winter of 1997, Wal-Mart was among the first merchants to test the self-checkout systems in Fayetteville, Arkansas, and other selected markets. The self-checkout machines were developed by Optimal Robotics based in Montreal, Canada.Each register included a holding area with a conveyer belt, a barcode reader, a touchscreen display, and a voice synthesizer to provide the customer with vocal and visual instructions, as well as a bagging area, which rested on scales that checked whether the weight of the scanned item corresponded with the weight of the item placed in the bag. The checkout stations also included currency readers and equipment to accept credit and debit cards, which allowed the customer to pay for the goods. The results of the initial tests were quite encouraging; thus, in 2002 the company began a large-scale rollout of selfcheckout units.Wal-Mart is installing self-checkout machines in most new Supercenters and Neighborhood Market Stores. A significant number of exis ting stores were also retrofitted with the new technology. Typically, the company installs from four to eight self-checkout stations in a store, depending on its size and sales volume. The main reasons that persuade retailers to adopt the new systems include the desire to provide a better customer MKT experience and the need to control costs. Self-checkout stations occupy 25 percent less space than traditional registers, which allows retailers to place more stations within the same floor space.Furthermore, with only one employee overseeing four machines, the store is able to keep a sufficient number of registers open while driving down labor costs. A set of four registers, which costs $80,000 to $100,000, has a payback period of only 6 to 12 months, if implemented correctly. Consumers enjoy shorter lines, faster service, and greater control over the checkout process. As self-checkout machines gain the capabilities to perform the functions of human cashiers (with some help from shopp ers), they gradually displace store employe

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Green Economics - Essay Example Green economics have so far been considered external to mainstream economics and there is a lot of discussion about whether they have any major points in similar. Green economics states that in the world we live in, needs looking after and if our daily transactions or dealings with each other affect the natural atmosphere, then it should be taken into account in decision making. As the natural resources are scarce, we can not use them wastefully, thus, our use of them should be noted. Besides, as our actions affect other human beings, such as a business decision affecting its consumers, suppliers, workers, shareholders, bank, the society and community etc, our actions can also affect non-human things such as plants, animals, the environment or the ecology and the different natural systems that exists around us. Green economics broadly encompasses the natural environment too while talking about social justice and other economic matters and has questioned some of the assumptions made by the classical economics. For this reason, it is often called non-neoclassical economics. ... Firms and individual also act separately on the basis on information and they have perfect knowledge. The assumptions of neoclassical theories include the profit maximizing behaviour of firms and the derivation of demand curves from the consumer indifference curves and budget lines to maximize their utility. Factors of production are analyzed by supply curves. It emphasizes on equilibrium and the aggregation of individual and firms' demands and supply curves. Bodies which shape up individual behaviour or are considered not as important are not emphasized. The conventional economics has taken a lot from this neoclassical approach in its assumptions and at the basic microeconomics level. Despite these derivations, there have been many individuals and economists who have criticized the neoclassical theories, especially when it came to the lack of attention given to the environment or the ecology. Green critics say that mainstream economists consider environmental and ecological considerations as externalities, which are a cost or benefit arising from an economic transaction or deal that affects a third party or people who are not directly related to the transaction. Conventional economics assume that the society's preferences are fixed and does not change or evolve with time or analysis. The green economists have often also shown distrust about capitalism which refers to an economic system where ownership is in private hands and economic decisions are made by the market economy. They do not believe that the "invisible hand" as called by Adam Smith makes the best decisions. The theory that self interest of individuals make them act in a certain way which brings

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Idea Generation and Analysis - Research Paper Example OSHA official have extremely comprehensive rules that are difficult to be understood by both employers and employees. The most notable thing I believe is to ensure that a relationship is maintained between OSHA and the people they intend to protect. Forums should be put in place that employers and employees can be sensitized about safety and security around the boat yard. 2. In line with the first idea, there should be material distributed within the boat yards that would encourage safe working practices within the boat yard. Small screens could be placed in common areas that employees take their breaks, and the screens should show clips of the various kinds of hazards that the workers are exposed to. The video should show how the accidents could occur and after which show how the accidents can be avoided. 3. There should be hazard signs placed at high risk areas. The signs should indicate what risk the worker might be exposing themselves to. For instance, if the surface where the worker is working on is slippery, there could be a hazard indicating there is a wet surface ahead; making the worker more alert to the danger. These hazards could be accompanied by voiceovers since some workers might be too distracted to see signs, and they would be at risk. 4. Workers might have a common are where they go into change into their work clothes when they report to work. The management could put up check lists at exists of the changing rooms. This checklists should be both visual and textual as they would attract more attention. â€Å"Do you have you helmet on†, and beside that a picture of a hard hat. Ensuring that the workers have the right gear on would reduce the risk of injury should something go wrong. 5. OSHA should not only enforce rules but should also encourage the adaptation of safe working practices within boat yards. They could encourage employee efforts

Architecture and History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Architecture and History - Essay Example Thus, the San Francisco Public Library remains to be one of the best examples of modern day architecture, which is characteristic of the most artistic era, the Renaissanceperiod, through its basic features such as the columns, the arches, the symmetry etc. The San Francisco Public Library is basically a civic building, which means it was mainly built with the public in mind. Thus, rather than merely providing a place with â€Å"a stack, a counter and a table† that define ‘library’ for some people, Kelham went the extra mile and turned the area of above 375000 square feet into an architectural bliss (Allen â€Å"photo_2_12_†). The hard work that went behind its engineering are proven from the sheer beauty of the library both in terms of its exterior as well as interior design. The library is built in the civic center, which is located at the heart of the San Francisco City, and is thus easily accessible to the general public. As the building finds its roots in the Italian Renaissance, it becomes clear that it takes inspiration from ancient Roman and Greek architecture. Although much of the architecture and design of ancient civilizations was lost due to the perils of time, their ruins retained the basic features of designing and this is what shaped the renaissance architecture. The main features of buildings belonging to that period include symmetry, use of columns as well as arches and domes. These features can be primarily traced back to the Roman Coliseum, which was a theatre as well as a stadium all in one.It was a civic building, which mainly aimed at the entertainment of the ruler but at the same time, the public too. Thus, it may be also perceived as a commercial building too as the profit generated from the entry fees mainly goes to the ruler. However, as time passed by the public’s worship shifted from the ruler tothat of the gods and religious beliefs. It can be seen that the usage of the civic buildings changed from t hat of entertainment to religious purposes. Thus, later on these attributes became to be increasingly used in the construction of religious monuments. Through this transition in the usage of the buildings, it actually made the ancient architectural citation more significant as during that time it was religion that ruled the public. Therefore, the aforementioned characteristicswere seen to be widely present in the churches constructed in the Italian Renaissance period.These churches had arches representative through a centralized door as well as rows of windows. This same attribute is intrinsic to the San Francisco Public Library with its arched doorways and windows. However, the library has its own style in the sense that it also contains rectangular windows on the top floor. On the other hand, these features were also present in ancient Greek ruins of temples, which were needless to say, built for religious purposes. For example, the temples built in Athens and other such areas bas ically involved the use of columns and entablature that consisted of architrave, frieze and cornice. Additionally, columns, which were an important part of these religious buildings, were mainly of three types, namely, the Doric, Ionic and Tuscan. On analysis of the columns of the San Francisco Public Library, it becomes clear that the columns are of the Tuscan order as the columns are not fluted and are basically plain, and also due to the fact that they are built on a circular base rather than a rectangular one. Symmetry that was an important characteristic

The Role of Total Quality Management in the National Health Service Essay - 1

The Role of Total Quality Management in the National Health Service - Essay Example The researcher of this essay states that in the last couple of decades, there has been an increasing interest in the application of quality management into healthcare organisations around the globe. It appears that the healthcare system, in general, have largely embraced total quality management. One of this organizations, that are aimed to improve themself is the National Health Service (NHS). It is stated that the drive for total quality management began early in the 1980s as a fall out of the Griffiths Report. Since then, and over the following years, ‘quality’ has become a buzz word in the NHS. This essay intends to look at this developing importance of total quality management in the healthcare sector. And using the NHS as a guide, this article reviews the critical elements of total quality management, the different factors that come to play in promoting these elements and how these can be better put to use to improve the overall quality of service delivery in the N HS. The next section of the essay attempts a detailed explanation of the term 'total quality management', to establish a background understanding of the topic at hand. This is followed by a look at the several elements of TQM, the factors driving these elements and how they inter-play to enhance service delivery and improve competitive advantage. In conclusion, the researcher discusses how total quality management has affected the National Health Service recently and what improvements were reached by it's managers.

How does historial perspective enhance our understanding of childhood Essay

How does historial perspective enhance our understanding of childhood in the present - Essay Example Regardless of the definitions, both from past and present, children must be under care of an adult with the law giving them minimal rights as well as restrictions. The legal aspect of childhood has extended the range of childhood as viewed in the society. That is if today’s childhood is defined as the young age that is managed by a responsible adult, the age might spill over to early twenties given that majority of the youth are still in college at this age. Childhood has been marked as completely different from adulthood, both in character, decision making and activity. This recognition first appeared in literature in 16th century and has since then been adopted and improved. The argument formulated then, that still holds today is that childhood is an immature stage of life, characterized by underdevelopment t both mentally and physically. And it’s on this basis that every action undertaken by a child should be manned closely by not only and adult but a responsible adu lt. The modern child has really changed as adults are taking childhood in a different perspective. Whilst in the early stages a normal child enjoys living with her parents, school has been made another home for a child, where many children are let to grow together, under the guidance of an instructor. Requirements are that unlike in the past where a child was to be transformed to a cultural adult, learning to do exactly what her parents have doing, the modern child is given the opportunity to develop his or her own skills based on talent and preference and capability. As evident in today’s generation, a doctor’s child can join a completely different profession such as engineering this being just an example. As noted earlier, childhood marks the development stages of a person and thus needs be handled intelligently to ensure success of that child in future. The modern setting of child completely differs from the past. The responsibility of rearing a child mentally has b een laid to a tutor who handles children of different personalities, unlike in the past where the parent dealt with almost homogeneous sons and daughters, living close to their relatives. This calls for the tutor to understand the present setting. Historical perspective is of great help but it requires the tutor, who is responsible for the child’s action, be able to analyze the importance historical lineage to present situation. A basic historical concept that deems necessary to the modern situation is the stage theory. Stage theory is based on the arguments of Jean Piaget that each child portrays some un9iversal characteristics in development regardless of the social backup. In generalizing the minds capability and intentions of all children, the tutor can easily administer general guidelines to the children. Jean formulated three basic ideas in t in the theory of cognitive development. To jean, childhood is made up of two stages; preoperational and concrete operational, wit h the former laying foundation to the latter and the latter forming the basis of adulthood. In the concrete stage, Jean portrayed the child as an active learner trying to experiment everything they think or hear of. The stages being interrelated shows a rigid nature of a child that could be characterized by resistance to change. However the modern child is very reactive to environment and gets easily influenced making him very flexible. Thus whereas

Comparative Study of Common Vegetable Starches Essay Example for Free

Comparative Study of Common Vegetable Starches Essay ABSTRACT The purpose of this experiment is to be able to help the society with its environmental issues by creating biodegradable plastic out of common vegetable starches. Here, the The procedures that the researcher use in this investigatory project were all experimental and were based on Scientific Method. The researcher used environment-friendly materials which can be made into biodegradable plastics that will not harm the environment and will not add to pollution problems. Among th The result was found that the product exhibited the desirable properties of a biodegradable plastic thus the product is completely biodegradable at disposal. The researcher conclude that among the different vegetable starches, _____________ starch is the most effective raw material for the development of biodegradable plastics due to its availability in large quantity, its relatively low cost and its biodegradability. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study The ever unending problem of waste disposal specifically the non-biodegradable one had contributed to the alarming worldwide problem of global warming. As an example, the experience storm surge of the island of Leyte due to increase of sea level, increase of water level among streets during heavy rain due to clogged drains, canals and sewerage. Using vegetable starches in developing biodegradable plastic is one big step to lessen, if not total eliminate, our global concerns. Generally, this study is conducted to replace the conventional non-biodegradable plastics to a more friendly biodegradable plastics using different vegetable starches. The cassava root is long and tapered, with a firm, homogeneous flesh encased in a detachable rind, about 1mm thick, rough and brown on the outside. Commercial varieties can be 5 to 10 cm in diameter at the top, and around 15 cm to 30 cm long. A woody cordon runs along the roots axis. The flesh can be chalk-white or yellowish. Cassava roots are very rich in starch, and contain significant amounts of calcium (50 mg/100g), phosphorus (40 mg/100g) and vitamin C (25 mg/100g). However, they are poor in protein and other nutrients. In contrast, cassava leaves are a good source of protein, and are rich in the amino acid lysine, though deficient in methionine and possibly tryptophan. These components are components of biodegradable plastic. The squash The sweet potato B. Significance of the Study Once one of these vegetable starches known, this study will be very essential in the production of biodegradable plastics, which can lessen the tremendous piled up non-biodegradable garbages made by plastics thereby reducing harm  to our environment. C. Statement of the Problem The problem is to compare which among the different vegetables; squash, sweet potato and cassava, which are rich in starch will be an effective component for biodegradable plastic. D. Hypothesis Cassava starch is the most effective component for biodegradable plastic. E. Scope and limitations This study will be focused on the comparison of the three common vegetables, namely, the squash, principal variable of this project is the cassava starch. The locale of this project is it could help save the environment and reduce use of plastic that takes a lot of years to degrade. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The word plastic came from the Greek word plastikos, meaning capable of being molded. Plastics can be as hard as metal or as soft as silk. They can take any shape in almost any form due to the versatility of the carbon, the most common backbone of polymer chains. Plastics can be conveniently divided into two categories: semi-synthetic, in which the basic chain structure is derived from a natural product, such as cellulose; and synthetic, which is built up chemically from small units or monomers. Despite the various applications of plastics, drawbacks have been encountered in three major points. Firstly, there are certain chemicals used in the manufacture of .plastics that may cause allergic reactions. Three is a need man from these threat. Secondly, since cellulose films are biodegradable; they are readily attacked by bacteria. Films and packaging materials from synthetic polymers are normally attacked at a very low rate. New polymers such is nylon, polyvinyl chloride and Polystyrene have replaced cellulose, the pioneer plastic material. As a result, these plastic materials have become permanent wastes. There are various methods in making biodegradable plastics. The simplest is the production of plastic from the extraction of casein from milk. Casein is obtained in two ways by souring, with the use of lactic acid, arid by boiling together with an additive, such as acetic acid. Starch is a natural organic polymer manufactured by green plants through photosynthesis s to serve as metabolic reserve It occurs in the form of grains in many parts of the plant, principally in embryonic tissues such as seeds, fruits, roots and tubers. Polyvinyl alcohol is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, thermoplastic synthetic resin. It is usually used for grease-proofing paper, in adhesives, in gas- and oil-impervious films and Coatings. This substance, although soluble in water, is insoluble in Common organic solvents. Glycerol is the simplest trihydric alcohol. In commercial form, it is called glycerin. It is a colorless odorless and viscous liquid with a sweet taste. It is completely soluble in water and alcohol but is only slightly soluble in many common solvents, such as ether, ethyl acetate and dioxane. It is widely used in coatings and paints, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Plastic production is relatively new technology. Experiments are being conducted to relieve the negative effects of overproducing plastics. By changing its raw materials and additives, commercial plastic may be improved so that it will become degradable while retaining its good quality. Cassava (Manihot esculenta), also called manioc, tapioca or yuca, is one of the most important food crops in the humid tropics, being particularly suited to conditions of low nutrient availability and able to survive drought (Burrell, 2003). The plant grows to a height of 1 to 3 m and several roots may be found on each plant. Although cassava leaves are sometimes consumed, the major harvested organ is the tuber, which is actually a swollen root. The plant is propagated mostly from stem cuttings. A major limitation of cassava production is the rapid post-harvest deterioration of its roots which usually prevents their storage in the fresh state for more than a few days (Okezie and Kosikowski, 1982). Cassava ranks very high among crops that convert the greatest amount of solar energy into soluble carbohydrates per unit of area. Among the starchy staples, cassava gives a carbohydrate production which is about 40% higher than rice and 25% more than maize, with the result that cassava is the cheapest source of calories for both human nutrition and animal feeding. A typical composition of the cassava root is  moisture (70%), starch (24%), fiber (2%), protein (1%) and other substances including minerals (3%) Compared to other crops, cassava excels under suboptimal conditions, offering the possibility of using marginal land to increase total agricultural production (Cock, 1982). METHODOLOGY Cassava Tubers were ground and squeezed to extract its starch. Starch obtained was weighed and divided into three equal parts; 50 grams in trial 1, trial 2 and trial 3. T1, T2 and T3 also consisted of 50 ml Polyester resin and increasing variations of Polymer MEKP Hardener; 50 grams for T1, 100 grams for T2 and 150 grams in T3. The components in every treatment or trial were mixed, stirred and then poured in 3 different shirts with Petroleum Jelly and then sun-dried. Afterwards, different methods were used to test the effectivity of the plastic. T1, T2 and T3 were sun-dried but they did not look like a plastic at all. The researchers observed the product while waiting for it to dry but there were no signs of turning into a plastic. The Cassava starch was too thick and the researchers realized that it would not turn into a plastic because of its heavy weight and it would take more time before it would dry because of its thickness. After letting T1, T2 and T3 dry under the sun, it became hard. Although the researchers had unexpected results and the Cassava starch did not turn into plastic, studies have already proven that Cassava starch could be used for making various types of packaging products. Cassava is a promising raw material for the development of biodegradable plastics.

Cross Cultural Marketing Communications

Cross Cultural Marketing Communications EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report addresses a project that elaborates Cross Cultural Marketing Communications with reference to Global perspective. It also includes an extensive study done on HSBC Pakistan enabling readers to closely understand the Think Global Act Local. A major programme of market research was carried out to assess the same. The main aim of this study was to explore the factors and considerations which give rise to local strategies development in marketing communications. In order to achieve the above mentioned primary secondary both researches were carried out. In primary research qualitative research was carried out which includes interviewing marketing officials of HSBC bank. The data collected was analysed closely to produce valuable findings. The research revealed that it is extremely important to have knowledge of local cultures and customs when entering in global business. The research identified substantial factors which matters while entering in a different cultured place. This confirmed that a general service like banking can also be moulded for customers in such a way that they will give preference to a service which cares about their local values. INTRODUCTION Of all the business trends spilling over from the 20th to 21st centuries, that of globalization is the one most likely not to be labelled as a fad after several years. The emergence of the global marketplace inevitably advances, bringing with it revolutionary change in the ways that many organizations do business. Harvards Theodore Levitt said more than a generation ago that the purpose of any business was to first attract, and then keep, a customer; globalization brings a wide range of possibilities to the process of attracting those customers. In the process of attracting customers in international markets it of course is necessary for businesses to enter those nations where the markets exist. We can talk all around the cultural differences that exist among the worlds people, but the bottom line is that people with different cultural backgrounds have different perspectives. The purpose here is to evaluate the statement. The language of comparative management seeks to represent the management systems of the other. It pretends to be an objective representation of those systems, but it can only talk about them in a language informed by its own localized and historically situated ontologies, epistemologies and moralities (Westwood, 2001, 242). And to examine the case of HSBC Worlds Local Bank the practices of HSBC will be explored in context with the local culture of Pakistan and what changes were made in their Marketing and Advertising program exclusively for Pakistan, as Pakistan is one of important and emerging countries of Asia. Since cross-cultural marketing is of great importance in this era of globalization many researches have been carried out in this field. Previous researches have not provided sufficient explanation for the cultural factors and practices of HSBC Bank Pakistan. This paper attempts to fill the gap by finding and studying the local practices of HSBC bank and how did they manage to cater the needs of local public. This paper starts examining the importance of cross cultural marketing efforts and the differences found in inter cultural markets. In chapter two consumers and the perception process is discussed with reference to cross cultural aspects. There are several issues which are to be explored in cross cultural marketing which will be discussed in chapter three. The case of HSBC bank and its claim of being worlds local bank will be explored in chapter 4. At the end of this paper recommendations and conclusion will be given based on the research and literature review. CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND 1.1 Cross cultural marketing and its importance Futurists, marketing gurus, demographers, even social scientists generally agree that virtually all research, but especially marketing research, depends on the population involved, specifically the consumer. Books on the weekly best sellers list and the most popular television programs provide directional signals to the future. Trend expert and futurist, Faith Popcorn regularly asks her clients whether or not they know what their customers ate for breakfast, how many kids they have, what are they thinking about and what their the three biggest concerns in life. If the answer is no, you dont know how to sell to them, Popcorn (1996) says. To understand consumers, you have to know what they are eating, how they are living and how they are shopping. Listening to the customer, understanding what he or she is all about, will help you future fit your company (pp. 7D). Generalities, Popcorn says, are what ultimately gives most companies grief. Mass market is overthe future is about individualization, she explains. We have entered a time of one-on-one or customized marketing (7D). It is simple commonsense to realize that such must also be the case in the process of cross-cultural marketing. To make assumptions about a particular target audience or market is flirting with marketing disaster. This is of even greater importance when the marketing is taking place across cultural barriers that might include language barriers, socio-economic status, religious beliefs, or other forms of restrictions that neglect to include the important component of who people are and what are the circumstances that have made them the way they are. The smart marketing professional fully researches and plans for cultural differences. Without that knowledge or without the understanding associated with such knowledge, the likelihood of a successful marketing campaign or product launch become increasingly more discouraging. No single aspect of product and service customization is more important, or more obvious, than that of the unique differences encapsulated within the cultural differences and particular influences based on larger issues associated with the society in which the consumer is born, raised, and educated. Certainly, a consumers preferences are developed in light of his or her opinions and experiences that are then influenced by the realm in which that consumers own personality and preferences are shaped. It is always important to remember, especially when looking at the larger product development framework that encompasses marketing that purchases are not necessarily about the item or service purchased. Of far greater interest to the consumer are the costs, the utility, and the popularity of any given item and not necessarily in that order. Shopping and consumption have become tied up with far more factors than need, utility, or amusement. Complicated issues such as sexuality, status, and self-esteem are connected to the purchases of everything from cars to handbags. Regardless of whether such a statement is accurate for any single individual or particular group of individual .It is a fact of life in retailing, in marketing, in all aspects of human interaction for most consumers, especially those most influenced by the commercialism of Western societies. As people across the globe gain better understanding of one another, it seems especially arrogant of an organization launching a marketing campaign without thorough research into the markets characteristics and features. It is obvious why the best companies are often those with the best access to the best information. The Information Age has drawn the world together, in at least one way. The fact that people around the industrialized world are well-aware of the products and services that are desirable and exist in other parts of the world. Unfortunately, those selling the products, whether those are industrial machines or womens lingerie are less aware of their consumers than the consumer is of then. As long as that lack of equilibrium is in place, the marketer faces an uphill battle. According to Ryan (1996), all too often, consumer research has been preoccupied with empirical issues and neglects the experiential perspective of consumers as individuals influenced by their cultures, upbringing, and lifestyle. This reflects a fundamental difficulty in consumer research that them leads to a lack of understanding of the context of the consumers cultural bias, preference, and understanding. The marketing specialist must always ask who or what is the consumer? However, the marketer must also be well aware of what factors have made the consumer think and act in the way he or she does. Without such an understanding of cultural issues, a product or service enters a market with a definite disadvantage. Malhotra, Agarwal and Peterson (1996) also warn that methodological issues have had the historical tendency of restricting the most positive and forward-thinking progress of cross-cultural marketing research. Cross-cultural research is best addressed through specialized analytical methods such as structural equation modelling and conjoint analysis. New methods, however, should be based on validated theories to benefit cross-cultural research. Researchers are encouraged to develop new methods and theories that are based on the cultural circumstances they are dealing with, as well as the information that makes such cultural concerns different or in need of modification from any other marketing process. The persuasiveness of any communication can be increased much more easily and dramatically by paying attention to the content (and the relation of that content to the dependent target variable) than by manipulation of credibility, attractiveness, fear, self-esteem, distraction, or any of the other myriad factors that have captured the attention of researchers in the area of marketing communication. Keeping these factors in mind, specific, qualitative research methodology must be employed in order to assure that the unique concerns of this equally unique culturally specific demographic are addressed. Recognizing that such a segment of the population requires a multi-faceted approach in terms of any meaningful research, the first baseline data should be gathered from a cross-national diffusion analysis since basic cross-national or cross-cultural diffusion analysis plays an integral role in determining the success of newly-introduced products in the market. According to Kumar, Ganesh, Echambadi (1998), evaluating cross-national/cultural factors does not only help firms determine market trends but also help them ascertain the period of time by which products are adopted in different parts of the country. However, it is safe to say that three key factors for successful cross-cultural business will always play a part in that atmosphere: recognition of the other partys difference, the need to remain culturally neutral, and respect for the cultural norms and/or behaviours regardless of potential emotional stress and discomfort. Marketing strategies must be sensitized according to the cultural norms and taboos of other societies, while considering their cultures languages, work schedules, tastes, religious beliefs and lifestyles. In most parts of Latin America, for example, social relationships must be established before the process of engaging in business. 1.2 Inter cultural marketing differences Every society as a cultural heritage that prescribes certain broad patterns of behaviour. These patterns extend to such diverse areas as sexual roles, dress, food habits, recreation, patterns of authority, status symbols, artefacts, attitudes, motivation, and use of space and meaning of language. We are accustomed to the practices and configurations of our own culture and, when deprived of them, are often unable to deal effectively with our environment. (Kenneth Runyon). Alvin Toffler refers the phenomenon of culture shock as the psychological effect of suddenly finding ourselves without our accustomed cultural support. Customs and culture can be even stronger than laws. When advertising to children age 12 or over was approved in Germany, local customs were so strong that companies risked customers revolt by continuing to advertise. (W Wells, Burnett J Moraity S) Every society has different set of cultures which companies and organizations have to keep in mind while developing their marketing and advertising strategies. Companies that are starting to do business in the Middle East have to learn new selling methods because the region is so devoutly religious. There are major restrictions on how women are presented in advertising. Many Asian cultures emphasize relationships and context. To be effective, the advertising message must recognize these cultural differences. (W Wells, Burnett J Moraity S) Values in a society continually change and are sometimes dichotomous. For example, as the median age of the population increases (the aging of baby boom generation), modifications in values are readily evident. While being tolerant of sexuality and other more liberal concepts, millions of Americans are, at the same time, returning to more traditional values and embracing some form of religion or spirituality. After decades of materialism and self-indulgence, many baby boomers are searching for meaning. Even younger members of society are changing. Many have embraced greater levels of temperance in terms of drugs, alcohol and sex. The restructuring of values in society presents three challenges for marketing experts. The first is to monitor for changes so that the company is aware of what is happening in the society. The second is to create products and services compatible with changing values. The third is to design marketing messages that reflect and build on the value target markets and individual customers hold. (Kenneth Clow Donald Baack). CHAPTER 2: CONSUMERS PERSPECTIVE 2.1 Consumer behaviour to cross cultural marketing The development of any product or service will be dependant on the behavioural attitudes of the buy consumers. These may influence the development, demand change or impact on the way in which marketing takes place. The development of many different products and services can be seen to demonstrate these changes. The way in which a purchase decision is made can be seen to encompass the different attitudes of a purchaser, and as such it will impact on the way the product is perceived and the need for companies to satisfy consumer needs or appeal to their desires. Research into this area has identified that the process that goes on in this black box is usually undertaken in one of two ways. This may be by the category-based evaluation or piecemeal processing (Hadjimarcou et al, 1999). Category based decision making is a method of evaluating a product (Hadjimarcou et al, 1999). For example a consumer may be in a supermarket considering which brand of coffee to buy. The category based process will involve the consumer will make use of the existing knowledge or memories that they already have regarding the product (Hadjimarcou et al, 1999). They may remember that a particular brand of coffee was associated with fair Trade, or received a good review in a food and drink magazine. It is worth noting that this will also reflect political changes and different fashions or trends. Advertising plays a part in this process as it gives the consumer a knowledge or perception of the product prior to the consumer arriving at the supermarket (Kahn, 1998). Even though this may not be remembered consciously the consumer may have this clue or memory stimulated when they see the packaging of a make, or make the association (Hadjimarcou et al, 1999). The advertising may be to associate with the product the company name or the brand. One example of the way advertising may be used is that of Chevron, who probably spent five times the cost of its environmental initiatives on publicity (Dadd and Carothers 1993,483), many of which were legal requirements. Other companies, such as Body Shop (Bartlett C, 1991), or Ben and Jerrys (Zinkhan and Carlson, 1995), have embraced environmentalism more sincerely approaching it in differing ways and as such create a more positive image that may be remembered when making a purchase decision. These have been as a result of the increase public awareness of the need for care of the environment, which has been propagated by non governmental organisations as well as the government. This shows how consumer states and behaviour change the way products are developed. If we consider the Bodyshop as an example, although the reputation was one of environmental policies and good practice, it was developed this way due to a perceived gap in the market, not out of an altruistic concern for the way business took place. Therefore, business follows the consumer demands. Likewise, Chevron cynically used the steps it was legally obliged to take to give an impression of an environmental business in order to increase its reputation and increase sales. There are also other trends that we can see take place, one only has to look in a UK supermarket during a dispute with France to see the way that the impression given by French products and the association with the dispute will decrease the demand for them. Here we see that there is also a strong indication that stereotyping may play a role in the consumer choices (Hadjimarcou et al, 1999). This may be seen as a strange kind or justice, after all the advertising companies have been stereotyping consumers for long enough. The second process is the piecemeal process, this may be seen as a more thoughtful approach, but it is still prone to influence form consumer behaviour (Hadjimarcou et al, 1999). In this process the consumer takes into account the different characteristics of the different products (Hadjimarcou et al, 1999). Our consumer looking for coffee may therefore look to see if it is decaffeinated, what the flavour strength and type is described as and possibly even the usefulness of the jar after the coffee is used. Today it is popular for a shopper to look to buy tuna with a dolphin friendly label indicating that dolphins were not harmed in the catching of the fish. The increased awareness of environmental factors has informed the consumers and increased the demand (Kotler, 2003). The same may be said of many other product, hence the increased appearance of low fat foods and low sugar foods, emblazoned with labels to tell the consumer that they have the characteristics which the consumer may find as desirable. The same is also true of health food, increased government and health advertising has emphasised the role of diet and health, as such there has been increased demand for products that are high in fibre, free of artificial preservatives and natural. The development of new ranges have also reflected changed consumer behaviour. A good example of this is the luxury food sold in supermarkets. These were once small lines with only a little interest shown in them. However, when the economy suffered a surprising event took place that indicated these were not ordinary goods but giffen goods. Normal goods will see sales drop when either their price rises or there is a decrease in disposable income and the relative price can be seen as increasing (Nellis and Parker, 2000). When the economy took a downward trend these good increased in sales, with demand for a better selection. The pattern was seen as a result of a reduction in visits by the consumers to a restaurant, this was seen as an acceptable substitute, good quality food, already prepared, but cheaper as it was bought and then cooked at home. This was a piecemeal decision as in many cases the prices were compared either form memory and the purchase was considered, The change in behaviour also instigated new ranged and developments of increased provision of these luxury brands. For example in the UK, each supermarket now has its own luxury brand, such as Tesco with their finest range. The aspect of price will also be seen as part of the process, this may be due to the perception of the brand as an expensive or cheap brand (stereotyping), as will the image of the product gained from the packaging and the advertising (Kahn, 1998). This was also a part of the rise of the luxury food market. The need for information and the way this is acted upon can also influence markets. A good example of this may be seen as the Dyson vacuum cleaner. This was the first vacuum cleaner to be patented with a bagless system. Turned down by major companies such as Electrolux the company started up producing the vacuums in a shoestring, with straightforward advertising the took pace by way of an explanation of what the product was. This become a popular product, so much so that competitors, such as Hoover broke the patent to start supplying similar products due to the change in consumer tastes and their demand for this type of vacuum after understanding exactly what it was and how it worked. These different decision methods may be seen as not mutually exclusive, they may interact with each other, and the decision maybe based on both, especially if the purchase is a large single purchase such as a television or a washing machine. However, they also embody the different behavioural attitudes of the consumer which manifest n the different purchase decisions. It is only when understanding this complex interaction of values beliefs and trends that a company can develop products that will sell and market them in the right way to the right target audience. The change is often seen as driven by new products, but the real change can be seen in the way that the consumer behaves, after all, if a new product is developed, but does not succeed it will not impact on the overall market, whereas changing attitudes will force change in the suppliers. 2.2 Perception based on cultural backgrounds Perception is important in communication because perception affects the way we understand events, others and ourselves. Our perceptions are unique because of physiological factors, past experiences, culture and co-culture, and present feelings and circumstances. Two computer programmers, each of the same race and from similar socioeconomic backgrounds, are likely to communicate with each other differently than if either was addressing a member of another culture or presenting a project report to a committee overseeing a project of which the programmers work was a part. Communication can be complicated when those involved are merely from different regions of the United States. When they are from totally different countries, then often it is wise to adopt highly formal speech and manner so as not to inadvertently offend the other party. We have found in recent years just how far the East is from the West in so many respects, including the manner in which different cultures go about conducting business. Following are examples from Germany and Japan. German fortunes have risen and fallen throughout the 20th century, but Germany remains the wealthiest and most highly populated of all the European nations. Despite its former political divisions, Germany consistently has been known for more than a century for its precision engineering. Whether the product is Daimler or BMW cars, photographic equipment or Siemens Medical equipment and applications, German engineering has been and remains an envy of much of the Western world. Germanys approach to engineering is not to reserve expertise only for the most promising or profitable industries, but to steep all of German industry in excellence. This tradition extends to textile machinery as well; Germany both imports and exports such machinery, commonly regarded as some of the best available in the entire world. Business travellers would do well to equate the precision of German engineering to the manner in which Germans prefer to conduct their business transactions. They are precise in information and punctuality, and a business meeting is just that. It is not a social occasion; the issue of small talk is one foreign to them. Whereas zeroing in on the point of a meeting would be bad form in Japan or China, it is expected in Germany (Sabath, 1999). Morrison, Conaway and Borden (1994) urge business people to remember that Germanys superlative engineering is not instantaneous, but is the product of a long, laborious process that literally can go on for years. The German reputation for quality is based (in part) on slow, methodical planning. Every aspect of the deal you propose will be pored over by many executives. Do not anticipate being able to speed up this process. This slowness extends through all business affairs. Germans believe that it takes time to do a job properly (Morrison, Conaway and Borden, 1994; p. 130). There is a vast difference between the business culture of todays Japan and that which first set Detroit on its ear in the early 1970s. Then, quality was paramount, and Japanese businessmen were inscrutable. They spoke of quality, honour and courtesy, and they required any foreign business entity wishing to do business with them to convert to their approach, or at least adopt their approach in soliciting them. Japans business culture is in a state of flux at the current time. Traditional values still hold great influence, but they are gradually being shoved aside by the realities of the state of Japans economy. Some things apparently never change, however. Managers in Japan think that if people dont know about something, then the best thing to do is cover it up, says Shuji Oida, a specialist in crisis management with Cosmo Public Relations in Tokyo (Butler and Hadfield, 2000; p. 36). Despite all of these changes, however, the traditional Asian perspective still is paramount in Japan. As stated earlier, the Japanese regard silence as a useful tool and not a reason for any discomfort. Perhaps the most problematic aspect of the Japanese personality is the reluctance to be negative at all. The statement, Ill consider it may well be a no in disguise (Morrison, Conaway and Borden, 1994). The Asian character persists in Japan of course, though Japanese business is much more Western than in the past. Connections are important, as is relative rank. Traditions seem to fall away with each passing year in the US, but other areas of the world are far more committed to their own traditions. Whether springing from their long histories or their own views of their systems superiority makes little difference. The fact of globalization is a stable one, and it will be necessary for anyone hoping to be successful to be fully aware of culturally-based differences in perceptions and how they colour communications between people. CHAPTER 3: ISSUES IN CROSS CULTURAL MARKETING 3.1 Language in cross cultural advertising The second model of international adverting emphasizes the cultural differences among nations. This school of thought recognizes that people worldwide share certain thoughts, but it also stresses the fact that these needs are met differently from culture to culture although the same emotions are basic to all humanity; the degree to which these emotions are expressed publicly varies. The camaraderie typical in an Australian business office are frowned on in Germany, where co-workers often do not use first names. The ways in which we categorize information and the values we attach to people depend on the things and settings in which we were raised.( William, Jhon Sandra) How do cultural differences relate to advertising? According to the high-context/low-context theory, although the function of advertising is the same throughout the world, the mission of its message varies in different cultural settings. The major distinction is because of high context cultures, in which the meaning of a message can be understood in a specific context, and low context cultures, in which the message can be understood as an independent entity. (William, Jhon Sandra) This model helps explain the difficulties of advertising in other languages. The difference between Japanese and English are instructive. English is a low-context language. English words have very clearly defined meanings that are not highly dependent on the words preceding them. In Japanese, however, a word can have multiple meanings. Listeners will not understand the exact meaning of a word unless they clearly understand the following sentence that is the context in which words is used. (William, Jhon Sandra) Advertising message constructed by writers from high context cultures might be different to understand in low context cultures because they may offer too much detail to come to the point clearly. In contrast, messages authored by writers from low context are less difficult to understand in high context because they omit essential context details. (William, Jhon Sandra) Discussing the Japanese way of advertising, Takashi Michioka, president of DYR agency of Young Rubicam and Dentso, put it this way: in Japan, differences among products, does not consist of explaining this words the point of difference is competing products as in America. Differentiation is achieved by bringing out the appeal in the commercial- the way they talk, the music, the scenery-rather than emphasizing the unique features and dissimilarities of the product itself. (William, Jhon Sandra) Companies that want to understand how consumers think and make decisions about products conduct sophisticated consumer behaviour research, to identify their consumers, why they buy, what they buy and how they buy. (William, Jhon Sandra) It also is a visual road map for this chapter. We first explore the target market and then examine social, cultural, and physiological influences on the consumer behavior. 3.2 Communication style in cross cultural advertising The influence of culture on communication is well documented by researchers in many disciplines. One of the most difficult challenges for international marketers is communicating to people of diverse cultures. Cultural differences may exist not only between nations but also within a nation itself. Such cultural and micro cultural differences present a formidable challenge to international marketing and advertising practitioners because the value systems, attitudes, perceptions and communication of individuals and groups are all culturally shaped or influenced (Samover Porter, 1991; Tan, 1986). As research indicates, advertising, a form of social communication, is also influenced by various elements of the originating culture (e.g., Frith Wesson, 1991 ; Hong et al., 1987; Mueller, 1987; Rice Lu, 1988; Tanseyetal., 1990). On the other hand, cultural values may determine the differential meanings that people derive from advertising messages (Cundiff Hilger, 1984; Hornik, 1980; McCracken, 1986; Onkvisit Shaw, 1983). Advertising may also shape or affect the values of its consumers over time (Ewen Ewen, 1982; Ferguson et al., 1990; Pol lay, 1986, 1987). In his research reports, Pollay stated that advertising was a distorted mirror in that it reflects only certain underlying values and lifestyles. He also noted that advertising was a distorting mirror as well, because it strengthened those values by providing reinforcement, and p. 108). It is well documented in many disciplines (e.g., sociology, cultural anthropology, mass communication, marketing, cultural studies, semiotics) that advertising reflects and reinforces many of the social values, norms and stereotypes of its audiences (Coser et al., 1987; Holbrook, 1987; McQuail, 1994; Mueller, 1987; Vestergaard Schroder, 1985). Two well-known semiotic researchers, Fiske and Hartley (1978,1980) noted that advertising does not represent the researchers pointed out that advertising insists on an idealized goal of achieving personal happiness, success and security, and it does this by first depicting a world-o